India has used plants to treat disease and maintain health since ancient times [1]. An ethnobotanical study refers to the traditional applications of Indian medicinal plants by indigenous people. Today, millions of people still rely on these plants as vital components of traditional medicine and health care. 70% of rural Indians are thought to use traditional plant-based medicines as their main source of healthcare. The benefits of floral diversity to health care across civilisations have been widely recognised [2]. Over 50,000 species, representing over 13% of flowering plants, are reportedly used for medical purposes worldwide [3]. According to the World Health Organisation [4], 80% of people in developing nations solely use traditional medicines. They use medical procedures for their minor ailments or health care. There are some published surveys available concerning the alleged benefits of traditional medical treatments. Protected areas have an important role in the protection of biodiversity and medicinal plants [5]. So, the present study focuses on the availability and sustainable utilisation of medicinal plants in protected areas of the Lakh Bahosi Bird Sanctuary as well as changes in the floristic diversity of medicinal plants and their use at the community level, according to local and traditional healers.

Lakh Bahosi Bird Sanctuary is an important reservoir of medicinal plant diversity and native flora, underscoring the need for ongoing monitoring and conservation to preserve its rich biological resources [6,12]. The present study was conducted to document the medicinal plant species utilised by local communities residing in and around the sanctuary and to establish a comprehensive record of traditionally valuable ethnomedicinal plants [12]. Numerous plant species occurring within Lakh Bahosi Bird Sanctuary provide valuable resources to the local communities. Traditional knowledge regarding the utilisation of these plant species was documented through interviews conducted with indigenous people [13]. The findings revealed that plants are used for multiple purposes, including food, medicine, fodder, construction materials, and various cultural and religious practices. Several plant species, such as Cassia fistula, Phyllanthus emblica, Terminalia arjuna, and Moringa oleifera were found to be effective in treating a variety of illnesses. Among the plant parts used for therapeutic purposes, roots were the most frequently used, followed by leaves, fruits, seeds, bark, stems, and flowers. The study also indicated a gradual decline in traditional ethnobotanical knowledge among local inhabitants. Deforestation, urbanization, and contamination of lake water, which is confirmed by physico-chemical examination of lake water, are some of the causes that have led to this [13].

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Description of Study Site

The study site of the present study is Lakh Bahosi Bird Sanctuary and its adjacent areas. It was established in 1988 with the intention of protecting and maintaining the wetland, with a focus on local and migratory birds and the preservation of their natural environment, which includes aquatic flora and animals [14]. Geographically, it lies between 26°54′47.50″ N latitude and 79°39′19.20″ E longitude and encompasses an area of approximately 80 km², making it one of the largest bird sanctuaries in India [6, 7, 14]. Lakh Bahosi Wildlife Sanctuary is about 38 km from the historic city of Kannauj. The Sanctuary is formed of two oxbow Jheels near the village of Bahosi [7,8]. Both the Jheels, Lakh and Bahosi are located near the Lower Ganga Canal, so the overflow and seepage of water accumulates in the Jheels, resulting in about 600 ha of shallow wetlands perfectly suitable for water birds. However, at least 50,000 waterfowl can still be drawn to at least 400 hectares in the deeper sections. The sanctuary has gained international conservation importance due to the occurrence of several globally threatened bird species, including the Greater Spotted Eagle and the Sarus Crane, along with substantial populations of migratory and resident waterbirds [6-8]. The Ministry of Environment & Forests, Government of India, defines this wetland as part of the National Wetland Conservation Program [14]. The designation of the area as a protected bird sanctuary plays a crucial role in safeguarding its biodiversity and wetland habitats from anthropogenic disturbances, habitat degradation, and unsustainable resource exploitation [7].

Engagement of local communities in conservation efforts at the bird sanctuary is very impactful in conserving more native flora and fauna [9].  However, agriculture, grazing, fishing, and groundwater recharge are some of the elements that contribute to pollution in Lakh Bahosi Jheel of the Bird Sanctuary.

Plant Collection and Identification

Extensive field surveys have been done thrice in a year at the selected site.

During exploration, herbarium voucher specimens of each species have also been collected. All collected specimens have been identified by the key of species available in literature and other local flora [10].     

Collection of Ethnomedicinal data

Ethnobotanical data were collected through a semi-structured questionnaire designed in accordance with the sampling methodology described by Jain [11]. Individuals possessing traditional knowledge of medicinal plants were selected as key informants for the study [14]. Information regarding local plant names, plant parts used, methods of preparation and administration, and other ethnobotanical uses was collected through informal discussions and questionnaire-based interviews. This involved a general conversation with the informants. A total of 10 key informants, comprising 8 males and 2 females aged between 55 and 75 years, were selected for the study. They were chosen on the basis of their expertise in using medicinal plants for either self-medication or the treatment of others. During field surveys, informants were requested to identify and demonstrate the medicinal plant species using their local names. The documented species were collected, taxonomically identified, and authenticated following standard botanical procedures [15].

RESULTS

 The present study focused on the use of plants for medicinal purposes by the tribes in villages. It was observed that the indigenous people employed a wide variety of plants to heal various ailments (Plate 1A). A total of 60 medicinal plant species representing 36 botanical families were documented during the present study (Table 1). The information on the scientific name, family, plant parts used, and therapeutic uses of recorded plants is given in the table. The present study shows that almost all plant parts are used as medicine. Leaves are the plant parts most frequently used to treat illness, followed by fruits, seeds, bark, stems, and flowers. This suggests that leaves are more accessible and possess a higher concentration of bioactive compounds. Among the 36 families, Fabaceae was found to be dominant with 10 species (Figure 4). During the ethno-medicinal plant survey, the most common disease cure among the people was found to be Digestive/Gastrointestinal issues and Inflammatory conditions, while a minimum number of plants are used to cure Brain/Nervine Tonic and arthritis, which are included together in the other category. It is observed that a single plant may be used to cure many diseases, such as Calotropis gigantea, Phyllanthus emblica, andDatura stramonium (Table 1).

The data further shows that a broad range of diseases including anaemia, arthritis, asthma, diabetes, dysentery, fever & cold, skin diseases, and stomach disorders are treated using plant-based remedies. Notably, dysentery and snakebite/scorpion bite treatments showed higher usage of plant parts, indicating greater dependence on herbal remedies for these conditions.

The study also highlights the rich floristic diversity of the region, as a large number of plant species contribute to traditional healing practices. Different diseases are treated using different combinations of plant parts, reflecting the depth of indigenous knowledge. The results also support earlier findings that dicotyledons dominate the flora, contributing the majority of species, genera, and families. The presence of a small number of monocots and pteridophytes further confirms the pattern of dicot dominance (above 85%), as reported in previous studies of the sanctuary.

The analysis of vegetation structure in the study area indicates a clear dominance of herbaceous species. The relatively low number of woody plants suggests that the vegetation is predominantly herbaceous in nature, with limited development of dense forest structure. The study reveals that although the total number of aquatic and semi-aquatic plant species is relatively limited compared to terrestrial flora, their ecological and ethnobotanical importance is significant. Species such as Pontederia crassipes represent free-floating aquatic vegetation, while plants like Ludwigia adscendens and Alternanthera sessilis exhibit amphibious adaptations, thriving in both aquatic and marshy conditions. Semi-aquatic plants like Centella asiatica further indicate the presence of moist and transitional habitats, supporting biodiversity between strictly aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. These plants are not only important ecologically but are also widely used in traditional medicine for treating urinary disorders, inflammation, and neurological health.

DISCUSSION

The results of this study demonstrate the importance of ethnobotanical expertise in treating a range of illnesses with locally accessible plant resources. The prevalence of leaves as the most often utilised plant portion might be ascribed to their ease of availability, collection, and high concentration of secondary metabolites such as alkaloids, flavonoids, and tannins, all of which are known to have medicinal qualities. The comparatively lower use of flowers and fruits suggests that these parts may either have limited medicinal applications or be used selectively for specific ailments. Roots and bark, although effective, are used less frequently due to the destructive nature of their harvesting, which can negatively impact plant survival. This indicates an inherent traditional understanding of sustainable utilisation of plant resources.

The study also reveals that diseases such as dysentery, skin disorders, and snakebite/scorpion bite rely more heavily on plant-based treatments. This may be due to the limited accessibility of modern healthcare facilities in certain areas, leading communities to depend on traditional remedies. Additionally, the high usage for gastrointestinal and infectious diseases suggests that medicinal plants possess strong antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties. The wide range of diseases treated using plant-based remedies reflects the rich floristic diversity of the region. Such diversity not only supports traditional healthcare systems but also indicates a well-established relationship between local communities and their surrounding environment. Indigenous knowledge systems, passed down through generations, play a significant role in recognising and using these plant species efficiently. However, the study also raises concerns regarding the loss of traditional knowledge due to modernization and a lack of proper documentation. Younger generations are less inclined to adopt these practices, which may lead to erosion of valuable ethnobotanical information. Furthermore, overexploitation of certain plant species without proper conservation strategies may threaten biodiversity. Consequently, there is an urgent need to use scientific research and community involvement to record, validate, and preserve ethnobotanical knowledge. Furthermore, the integration of traditional medicinal practices with contemporary healthcare systems may contribute to a more comprehensive approach to disease management while promoting the sustainable utilization and conservation of medicinal plant resources.

CONCLUSION

The present study demonstrates that ethnobotanical knowledge plays a key role in primary healthcare, especially in regions where traditional medicine is still widely practised. The dominance of leaves in medicinal use emphasises their importance as a sustainable and easily available resource. The diversity of plant species and their varied uses demonstrate the rich floristic diversity and ecological wealth of the study area. This diversity not only supports traditional medicine but also provides potential sources for modern drug discovery. However, the increasing pressure on natural vegetation due to urbanisation and overexploitation may threaten these valuable plant resources. Thus, there is an urgent need to conserve medicinal plant diversity and comprehensively document traditional knowledge systems before they are lost due to environmental and socio-cultural changes. In conclusion, ethnobotanical studies like this serve as a bridge between traditional wisdom and modern science, promoting sustainable use of biodiversity while contributing to healthcare and conservation efforts.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are thankful to the Principal Chief Conservator of Forests (PCCF) for providing permission of a field visit of the protected sites of Lakh Bahosi Bird Sanctuary and HOD, Department of Botany, University of Lucknow for providing the laboratory facilities. 

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