Plant-based silver nanoparticles for colorimetric detection of metal ions and catalytic degradation of dyes: a review

Introduction

Nanoparticles have been receiving a lot of attention recently and the reason for this scientific intrigue with nanoparticles (NPs) is their ability to act as intermediaries between atomic or molecular assemblies and bulk constituents. A number of well-studied bulk materials have intriguing nanoscale characteristics [1]. The remarkable characteristics of nanomaterials, including their high surface area, high reactivity, and distinct optical and electrical properties, have sparked a great deal of curiosity. In today’s world, nanotechnologies are widely recognized as having the potential to be advantageous in a wide range of fields, such as the development of stronger and lighter materials, information and communication technology, water purification, and medicine. Nanoparticles find application in a wide range of fields (Figure 1), including biomedicine [2, 3], pharmaceuticals [4], electronics [5], magnetism, optoelectronics [6], energy [7], environmental [8, 9, 10], and catalysis [11, 12].

Based on the chemical composition, nanoparticles can be carbon-based (carbon nanotubes and nanofibers, etc.), metal and metal oxide based (Ag, Cu, etc.), bio-organic-based (liposomes, micelles, etc.), and composite-based [13]. While there are several physicochemical techniques for the synthesis of nanoparticles, biological synthesis is a more appealing option when it comes to creating non-toxic and ecologically safe materials, particularly for medical applications where invasive procedures are involved. Numerous pathways have been established for the biological or biogenic creation of nanoparticles from the corresponding metal salts [14 – 18]. The ability of plant extracts to reduce metal ions and aid in the formation of nanoparticles has been studied widely in recent years.

Among the different types of nanoparticles synthesized, silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are widely studied and used. Silver nanoparticles have generated a lot of attention because of their unique physical and chemical characteristics. Owing to these characteristics, they have found use in a wide range of industries and products. AgNPs are used in biomedicine as antibacterial [19], anti-fungal, anti-viral [20], anti-inflammatory [21], antioxidant [22] and anti-diabetic agents [23]. Studies have shown that AgNPs exhibit anti-cancer properties [24, 25]. AgNPs are also employed in the field of medicine for medical device coatings [26, 27, 234-235-236], orthopedics [28], drug delivery [29, 24], diagnostics [30] and in pharmaceutical industry [4]. Recent studies suggested the probable use of AgNPs as active and intelligent food packaging material [31, 32, 33]. Studies have shown that AgNPs can also be used as a component of sun protection cream [34] and as a potential preservative for cosmetic products [35].

Due to their optical properties, AgNPs are also used as optical sensors [36, 37]. AgNPs have been successfully used as plasmonic sensors for heavy metals [38, 39, 40] and organic compounds found in water, as well as appropriate photocatalysts for encouraging the oxidative degradation of pollutants, particularly dyes [41, 42, 43] and pesticides [44, 45]. These developments have expanded the use of AgNPs in field of environment.

AgNPs are frequently associated with their application as antibacterial agents and in medicine; however, this feature is not included in this review. This review primarily focuses on the novel green synthesis of silver nanoparticles and their use in environmental applications as sensors for heavy metals and degradation of dyes.

Synthesis of silver nanoparticles

A “top down” or “bottom up” strategy can often be used in the processes used to synthesize nanoparticles. Size reduction is the method used in top-down synthesis to create nanoparticles from an appropriate starting material [46]. A variety of chemical and physical processes can reduce size. Top-down method of synthesis result in surface defects, which is a significant drawback since surface chemistry and other physical characteristics of nanoparticles heavily rely on surface structure [47]. The building blocks for nanoparticles in bottom-up synthesis are smaller entities, such as atoms, molecules, and smaller particles [48]. In a process known as “bottom-up synthesis,” the final particle is created by first assembling the nanostructured building components of the nanoparticles [47]. The majority of the production techniques used in bottom-up synthesis are chemical and biological. Different techniques used in the synthesis of nanoparticles are shown in figure 2.

Physical methods are classified as top-down approaches, whereas chemical and biological procedures use a bottom-up strategy to synthesize nanoparticles. Among the most popular physical techniques to synthesize NPs include evaporation-condensation, electrolysis, diffusion, laser ablation, sputter deposition, pyrolysis, high-energy ball milling, electrospinning, melt mixing and phase separation [49, 50]. Chemical method of synthesis is a bottom down approach and is the most common and traditional techniques for creating metallic NPs are chemical synthesis methods, which include thermal breakdown, chemical reduction, micro-emulsion/colloidal, and electrochemical processes. One of the most popular techniques for NPs chemical synthesis is the chemical reduction of NPs from their corresponding metal salt precursors by adding certain reducing agents. This approach is simple to operate and requires little equipment. A number of stabilizing agents such as polyvinyl pyrrolidone [51] and dodecyl benzyl sulfate [52] as well as reducing agents like potassium bitartrate [53], formaldehyde [54], methoxy polyethylene glycol [55], and sodium borohydride (NaBH₄) [56], etc. have been investigated for the synthesis of nanoparticles. The therapeutic and biomedical applications are, however, limited by the use of harmful chemicals and the creation of hazardous byproducts, which affect the environment [57, 58]. Therefore, there is a growing need for non-toxic, high-yielding, environmentally friendly processes for metallic NPs that can take the place of traditional approaches. Thus, the biological synthesis techniques offer a compelling substitute for the physicochemical synthesis techniques [59; 235]. The biological method of synthesis is advantageous over the other as it is non-toxic, renewable, biocompatible, and eco-friendly [60].

Biological synthesis of silver nanoparticles

Numerous materials, including bacteria, viruses, fungus, yeast, algae, and plants and plant products, can be used in the biological synthesis of nanoparticles (NPs). Mixing biomaterials with precursors of metal salts initiates with the synthesis of nanoparticles [61]. The presence of biomolecules such as proteins, alkaloids, flavonoids, reducing sugars, polyphenols, etc., functions as a capping and reducing agent during the synthesis of NPs from their metal salt predecessors [62]. Generally, AgNPs are synthesized by combining plant biomass or extract with a metal salt solution (AgNO₃) at the appropriate pH and temperature. Silver nitrate is a commonly used metal salt in the synthesis of silver nanoparticles. Observing the solution’s color change can serve as the primary confirmation of AgNPs production. Studies have reported the green synthesis of AgNPs by using the extract of different plant parts such as leaves, fruits, fruit peels, flowers, bark, seeds, roots, etc. (shown in table 1), micro-organisms [63 – 66], fungi [67, 68, 69], yeast [70], algae [71, 72].

AgNPs of different morphologies have been synthesized and studied for various applications. The morphology is important, particularly in terms of the possibility of having materials with diverse symmetries, like spheres (AgNPs) [73-75], cubes (AgNCs) [76-78], or without a definite and repeatable symmetry, like stars (AgNSs) [79], flowers (AgNFs) [80, 81], wires (AgNWs) [82-84].

Characterization of silver nanoparticles

In the synthesis of nanoparticles, characterization is a critical step as it helps to determine the morphology (shape, size, size distribution, etc.), topography, surface chemistry, elemental composition and other properties. Numerous analytical techniques, such as UV-Visible spectroscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffractometry (XRD), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), dynamic light scattering (DLS), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM), and others, have been used to characterize the synthesized nanomaterials.

UV-Visible spectroscopy is the most popular method for the primary characterization of metallic nanoparticles by monitoring their synthesis and stability. When a metallic nanoparticle is synthesized from its specific salt, a distinctive peak with high absorptions in the visible spectrum can be observed. Numerous investigations have demonstrated that the absorption band at between 200–800 nm wavelength is generally the most effective for characterizing particles within the 2–100 nm size range.

FTIR is utilized to identify important functional groups and to characterize individual biomolecules bound to the produced AgNPs by electrostatic attraction of carboxyl groups, free amine groups, or cysteine residues [85]. X-ray diffraction (XRD), a popular non-destructive analytical method has been applied to the study of molecular and crystal structures, as well as to the qualitative and quantitative identification of different compounds [86], the degree of crystallinity, isomorphous substitutions, particle sizes, and other applications [85]. Dynamic light scattering (DLS) is a method used for the measurement of narrow particle size distributions, particularly in the range of 2–500 nm [87]. By measuring both the actual diameter and the diameter of the electrostatic potential surrounding the nanoparticles, DLS also measures the hydrodynamic size of the NPs [88]. XPS, also known as electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis (ESCA) is a quantitative spectroscopic surface chemical analysis technique used to estimate empirical formulae [89, 90].

SEM is a surface imaging technique that can accurately resolve various particle sizes, size distributions, nanomaterial shapes, and the surface morphology of synthesized particles at the nanoscales. Using specialized software or manual particle counting and measurement, one can examine the morphology of the particles and create a histogram from the images [91]. Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) and SEM combined allow for the examination of both morphology and chemical composition. TEM is used to measure the size distribution, morphology, and particle and/or grain sizes quantitatively. The lattice parameters, crystal structure, and degree of crystallinity of AgNPs are measured using the HR-TEM’s selected area electron diffraction (SAED) pattern. Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) is typically used to analyze the size, shape, sorption, structure, and dispersion and aggregation of nanomaterials. Unlike electron or light microscopy, AFM does not require an incident beam in order to see the specimen directly and with great resolution.

AgNPs’ surface characteristics, namely local surface plasmon resonance (LSPR), have made them popular in sensing applications. It is well known that electrons on the surface of noble metal nanoparticles (NPs) cause substantial extinction and dispersion spectra at around 400 nm in the visible spectrum as a result of their interaction with electromagnetic radiation. For detection, this characteristic is extremely helpful. Infact, the LSPR band may alter and, frequently, there may also be a color shift when an analyte comes into contact with Ag-NPs. Additionally, AgNPs have several benefits over other metal NPs (Au, Cu, Li, and Al NPs) because they can exhibit LSPR in the visible and near-infrared (NIR) regions in the range of 300–1200 nm [92, 93].

Silver nanoparticles as a sensor for the detection of metals

Heavy metal contamination of water has been increased due to different anthropogenic activities. Many heavy metals, including Cd²⁺, Cu²⁺, Fe³⁺, Hg²⁺, Mn²⁺, Ni²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Zn²⁺ have been identified as possible environmental contaminants that, even at trace ppm level concentrations, produce a variety of issues for soil, aquatic organisms, plants, animals, and humans [94, 95]. Generally, the detection of metals is done using conventional quantitative measurements or analytical techniques. In recent times, use of nanoparticles as sensors for the detection of metals has been studied (Figure 3). Due to their optical characteristics and high extinction coefficient in the visible range, nanomaterials have been used in recent years for metal ion sensing and detection. In general, when particular analytes come into contact with silver nanoparticles, their optical absorbance changes, which is the basis for the behavior of these colorimetric optical sensors. To create a functional optical sensor, one can take advantage of the gradual alteration of the optical quality in relation to the quantity of contamination. The kind of functional moiety that alters the environment around silver nanoparticles alters the reported SPR intensity, energy, and band shape, which allows for accurate target molecule quantification. This determines the sensitivity of these kinds of optical sensors. Plant-based silver nanoparticles have been studied for their ability to detect metal ions (Table 2) and a few studies have been discussed below.

A simple, portable, and reasonably priced technique for the quick detection of Cr³⁺ was created by Sangsin et al. (2021) [96]. It is based on a co-functionalized silver nanoparticle (AgNPs) system and a smartphone readout for on-site application. With a linear range of 2.0–5.0 mg L⁻¹ and a detection limit of 1.52 mg L⁻¹, this smartphone-based detection system demonstrated a great selectivity of AgNPs with ^Cr3+ and produced a positive coefficient correlation (R₂ = 0.9878) between the intensity of channel R and the Cr³⁺ concentration. Additionally, the suggested technique has been effectively used to quantify Cr³⁺ in samples of nutritional supplements. Dayanidhi & Eusuff (2021) [38] used the pericarp extract of Sapindus mukorossi as a reducing and stabilizing agent to create green-synthesized silver nanoparticles (AgNps). The suggested AgNps was effectively investigated as a possible colorimetric probe for the quick, sensitive, and accurate identification of Fe²⁺ and Fe³⁺ ions in contrast to a range of other metal ions. The technique proved effective in identifying Fe²⁺ and Fe³⁺ ions in drinking, tap, and river water, demonstrating the probe’s effectiveness in actual sample analysis. Using green tea leaf extract as a reductor and PVA as a stabilizer, Ag (I) was reduced to create the AgNPs by Taufiq et al. (2021) [39]. Cu (II), Pb (II), Cd (II), Zn (II), and Mn (II) were the materials used for the detection. Out of the five ions tested, the most sensitive response was found for Cu (II) ions. In the Cu (II) concentration range of 0.2–1.4 ppm, the response demonstrated good linearity (R2 = 0.9886). Cu (II) sensitivity, on the other hand, led to detection and quantitation limits of 0.1609 mg.L-1 and 0.5179 mg.L1, respectively.

Alzahrani et al. (2020) [97] investigated the use of green-synthesized silver nanoparticles in the selective detection of Hg (II) ions in water samples. Using AgNPs, harmful mercury ions can be selectively and colorimetrically detected in real water samples (tap and ground water). Over 92% of good recovery and an RSD of less than 6% were indicated by the results. Ahmed et al. (2020) [40] reported the use of green-synthesized silver nanoparticles (AgNPs), mediated from the environmentally friendly root extract of Bistorta amplexicaulis, to create an incredibly selective and economical colorimetric sensor for the simultaneous recognition of Hg²⁺ and Pb²⁺. A colorimetric sensor based on AgNPs exhibits high sensitivity to Hg²⁺ and Pb²⁺, with limits of detection (LOD) of 8.0 × 10−7 M for Hg²⁺ and 2.0 × 10−7 M for Pb²⁺, respectively. AgNPs also demonstrated encouraging catalytic activity in the breakdown of methyl orange dye. The tap water sample was used to test the detection of specific metal ions by AgNPs and its practical applicability. An analysis of tap water showed that one of its constituents had no effect on the detection of Pb²⁺ and Hg²⁺. Bindhu et al (2020) [98] effectively detected the presence of copper ions (Cu⁴⁺) from 1 mM to 12 mM concentrations using silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) from Moringa oleifera flower (MOF) extract.The biosynthesis and characterization of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) from the leaf extract of the orchid tree (Bauhinia variegata) were conducted in a study by Uzunoğlu et al. (2020) [99]. Then, the usefulness of AgNPs as a colorimetric sensor for the detection of Fe³⁺ ions in aqueous solutions was assessed. AgNPs have a linear range of 6-100 μM and a detection limit of 2.08×10−6 M, making them useful for the sensitive and selective detection of Fe³⁺ ions in aqueous solutions.

Chandraker et al. (2019) [100] used AgNPs from Sonchus arvensis (SA) leaf extract in a colorimetric method to quickly detect heavy metals in an aqueous medium. As noble solid bio-sensors, the obtained NPs were found to be highly selective and sensitive to Fe³⁺ and Hg²⁺ metal ions at a detection limit of 10^-3 M. When exposed to sunlight, SA-AgNPs exhibited significantly higher catalytic efficiency against methylene blue than other dyes, completely degrading the dye in just one hour. The lower bandgap value (3.2 eV) of SA-AgNPs was found to be the cause of this catalytic efficiency. Zhang et al. (2019) [101] used lignin nanoparticles (LNPs) as a reducing and stabilizing agent to prepare silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) from silver nitrate in the presence of solar light. The resultant AgNP-LNP suspension exhibits a color shift from yellow to colorless in response to Hg (II), demonstrating an ultrasensitive and selective optical response. Spectrophotometry was used to carry out the assay at 450 nm. The limit of detection is 1.4 nM in deionized water and 1.8 nM in spiked tap water. The analytically useful range of Hg (II) is 5 nM to 100 nM. This is less than the US Environmental Protection Agency’s recommended threshold level (10 nM) for drinking water. Al-Qahtani (2017) [102] investigated the removal of Cd²⁺ from contaminated aqueous solutions utilizing silver nanoparticles made from Ficus tree (Ficus Benjamina) leaf extract. Based on the findings, the removal of metal ions is influenced by the agitation speed, pH, interaction time, metal concentration, and adsorption dosage. Two techniques for the detection of Cu²⁺ and Hg²⁺ ions using biosynthesized silver nanoparticles were reported by Maiti et al. (2016) [103]. Changes in absorbance brought on by the metal ion’s complex formation served as the basis for the detection of the Cu²⁺ ion. To detect Hg²⁺ in water using a colorimetric technique, 3-mercapto-1, 2-propanediol (MPD) was added to the AgNP to further functionalize it. The quick colorimetric sensing ability of silver nanoparticles made with dahlia pinnata leaf extract was documented by Roy et al. (2015b) [104]. Across a broad pH range, the biosynthesized Ag nanoparticles demonstrated the capacity to selectively detect dangerous Hg²⁺ ions. The green-synthesised Ag nanoparticles successfully and immediately identified the presence of dangerous Hg²⁺ ions in water.

In 2014, Annadasan and colleagues [105] presented a simple and environmentally friendly process for producing L-tyrosine-stabilized silver (AgNPs) and gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) in an aqueous medium while exposed to ambient sunlight. Under optimal conditions, the synthesized AgNPs exhibit a low detection limit of 16 nM for both Hg²⁺ and Mn²⁺ ions, indicating their high sensitivity to these ions. The synthetic metal nanoparticles’ colorimetric sensor application was evaluated using actual samples, including drinking and tap water. The lowest amounts of Hg²⁺ that could be detected in tap and drinking water were calculated to be 19 and 26 nM, respectively.

Karthiga & Anthony (2013) [106] demonstrated selective colorimetric sensing using green synthesized silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) from different plant extracts. Fresh neem leaf extract-based AgNPs were found to preferentially detect Hg²⁺, whereas sun-dried neem leaf extract-based AgNPs were shown to selectively sense Pb²⁺ and Hg²⁺ at micromolar concentrations. AgNPs derived from neem bark extract demonstrated focused colorimetric detection of Hg²⁺ and Zn²⁺. AgNPs made from fresh mango leaf and sun-dried mango leaf as well as green tea extract demonstrated specific colorimetric detection of Hg²⁺ and Pb²⁺ ions. Hg²⁺, Pb²⁺ and Zn²⁺ selective colorimetric sensor characteristics were demonstrated by AgNPs produced from pepper seed extracts. Significantly, these environmentally friendly synthetic AgNPs were able to identify dangerous metal ions in aqueous solutions throughout a broad pH range (2.0–11), which is an extremely desired property when considering the many water pollution causes.

The lowest amounts of Mn²⁺ that could be detected in tap and drinking water were calculated to be 26 nM and 23 nM, respectively. Farhadi et al. (2012) [107] presented the reaction between biologically green-synthesized silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) and mercury (II) ions as a novel and highly promising colorimetric sensor for the selective detection and tracking of mercuric ions in aqueous samples. The yellow AgNPs solution became colorless in the presence of Hg²⁺, and the SPR band also broadened and shifted to the blue. The study examined the sensitivity and selectivity of green prepared AgNPs towards alkali metal ions, alkaline earth metal ions, and other representative transition-metal ions. The impact of Hg²⁺ concentration on AgNPs was also taken into account, and the LOD for mercury (II) ion was found to be 2.2 × 10−6 mol L⁻¹.

Dye degradation using biosynthesized silver nanoparticles

The majority of effluents from the textile sector are dyes, which are regularly discharged into wastewater streams and affect the environment. The main dyes used by industries to add color are azo, cationic, basic, and acidic dyes, all of which have a high potential for toxicity and cancer [108, 109]. Industries directly release waste water containing dyes into nearby bodies of water, such lakes and drains, degrading the quality of water and subsequently soil as well [110]. Aquatic life is impacted by dye molecules because they are hazardous and decrease the amount of sunlight that enters water bodies. Therefore, effluent containing dye must be properly treated before being released into adjacent water bodies. Various physical, chemical and biological techniques are used for the degradation of dyes [111-113]. Nanotechnology has shown potential in the degradation of dyes and recently, the efficacy of green-synthesized silver nanoparticles in dye degradation has been highlighted. Studies showing the dye degrading potential of green-synthesized silver nanoparticles are shown in Table 3 and are discussed below.

Photo catalytic degradation of dyes

The primary method for treating dye effluents using silver nanoparticles is photocatalysis, in which the production of electron-hole pairs is caused by electrons driven from the valence band to the conduction band by light. Complete dye degradation to non-hazardous compounds (CO₂, H₂O, etc.) is achieved by the strong oxidizing action of the hydroxyl radical produced [114]. The primary benefit of photocatalysis is in its ability to convert light energy directly into chemical energy, hence decreasing energy usage and environmental contamination. This is in line with the principles of sustainable chemistry and green organic synthesis. [235;7] study focused on the synthesis of nanoparticles using extracts from plant and neem leaves and their use as an antimicrobial and dye-degrading agent for the treatment of wastewater. Using nanoparticles derived from banana peels, 99% degradation of the model dye malachite green was observed in 4.5 hours at a concentration of 0.06 mg/ml. This work offers a cost-effective and environmentally friendly method for synthesizing AgNPs and exploring its possible use in wastewater treatment to eliminate hazardous dye. To assess the degradability of Methylene Blue (MB) dye. Saied et al. (2022) [115] investigated the Photocatalytic Activity of Biosynthesized Silver Nanoparticles Using Cytobacillus firmus. The AgNPs demonstrated a high degree of MB dye biodegradability (98%) following an 8-hour co-incubation period under sunlight. When compared to the non-treated MB dye-contaminated solution, the phytotoxicity of the treated MB dye-contaminated water sample demonstrated satisfactory germination of Vicia faba. Kumar et al. (2022) [116] successfully carried out the catalytic degradation of a few hazardous dyes (congo red, 4-nitrophenol, 4-nitroaniline, and methylene blue) utilizing green silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) that were biosynthesized from Cestrum nocturnum L. in the presence of NaBH₄. In 8 and 15 minutes, respectively, more than 90% of the dyes 4-nitrophenol and congo red were broken down by AgNPs acting as a catalyst. The dyes 4-nitroaniline and methylene blue degraded up to 78-79% in 8 and 18 minutes, respectively. The aforementioned findings imply that the photoinduced AgNPs exhibit outstanding catalytic activity.

Using Grewia asiatica leaf extract, Ateeb et al. (2022) [117] investigated the silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) photocatalytic activity for the breakdown of the organic dye crystal violet. AgNP-based crystal violet dye degradation profile revealed 76% elimination in 30 minutes. Mahreen et al. (2021) [42] described the synthesis of affordable green silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) with applications in photocatalytic oxidation and antimicrobial water treatment, utilizing Moringa oleifera seed (MOS) as a reducing/capping agent. Under solar radiation, the MOS-AgNPs exhibited impressive photocatalytic activity toward organic dyes (methylene blue (>81%), orange red (>82%), and 4-nitrophenol (> 75%)). Furthermore, MOS-AgNPs eliminated more than 80% of the harmful Pb metal ions from the treated water. After ten photocatalytic cycles, the synthesized MOS-AgNPs maintained their photocatalytic efficiency under comparable conditions. The catalytic activity of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) on the reduction of methylene blue dye was examined by Al-Zaban et al (2021) [118]. HPLC and a UV/Vis spectrophotometer were utilized to investigate and assess how well silver nanoparticles degraded methylene blue. The findings indicate that after 72 hours, 92% of the methylene blue had been broken down. After 72 hours, the percentage of methylene blue degradation by 10 mg/L of synthesized AgNPs using natural honey reached the maximum percentage of dye degradation (92.0%).

In (2021), Chougule et al. [119] synthesized silver nanoparticles using extract from the Moringa oleifera plant for use in food packaging, antimicrobial applications, and photocatalytic degradation. They observed that the presence of AgNPs as a photocatalyst resulted in 85.13% and 91.63% photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue and malachite green, respectively. Adoni et al. (2020) [120] used an extract from the leaves of the medicinal herb Artemisia annua L. to conduct a green synthesis of silver nanoparticles. Excellent catalytic activity was demonstrated by the Aa-AgNPs in the reduction of orange-red and lemon-yellow food dyes. Khan et al. (2020) [121] evaluated the photocatalytic application of the AgNPs synthesized using Petroselinum crispum plant extract for the degradation of brilliant green dye (BG) and demonstrated that about 80% of the dye was degraded within 20 min at pH 7.9. Two groundwater samples were collected in order to assess the effect of various competing ions in the water on BG elimination. The findings showed that competing ions in water demonstrated a decrease in absorption strength, indicating decrease in BG dye degradation.

The antibacterial and catalytic properties of the green-synthesised AgNPs utilizing A. kopetdaghensis shoot extract were demonstrated by Taghavizadeh Yazdi et al. (2020) [122]. High dye degradation activity (83.11%) has been noted under optimal conditions. A degradation percentage of 82% was achieved in 50 minutes under ideal degradation experimental circumstances, according to Albeladi et al. (2020) [43] demonstrating of the catalytic property of biosynthesized silver nanoparticles towards the degradation of the azo dye Congo red (CR). Even after five reuse cycles, the silver nanoparticles produced using biosynthetic means demonstrated exceptional catalytic decolorization performance. AgNPs (made from Zingiber officinale rhizome extract) have been effectively employed by Barman et al. (2019) [123] as an effective catalyst in the degradation of hazardous dyes, such as methylene blue, methyl red, and safranin O. It was discovered that the rate constants for the degradation of methylene blue, methyl red, and safranin O were, respectively, 14.25 × 10−3 sec−1, 9.68 × 10−3 sec−1, and 4.72 × 10−3sec−1.

In (2019), Ravichandran et al. [124] investigated the silver nanoparticle-mediated photocatalytic activity of Parkia speciosa leaf aqueous extract by degrading methylene blue (MB) in the presence of PAgNPs while exposed to sunlight. According to the photocatalytic study, PAgNPs can effectively degrade methylene blue dye at pH 11 when exposed to sunlight. For this reason, the textile and water purification industries may find great use for these. Veisi et al. (2018) [125] investigated the catalytic ability of green-synthesized silver nanoparticles using the extract of Thymbra spicata leaves in the reduction of dyes such as 4-nitrophenol (4-NP), Rhodamin B (RhB) and Methylene blue (MB) at room temperature. Through centrifugation, the catalyst was easily separated and applied eight times in a row without experiencing significant activity loss and with a nearly full conversion. The photocatalytic activity of silver nanoparticles made from Ananas comosus (peel waste) aqueous extract was shown by Agnihotri et al. (2018) [126] against methylene blue dye under a variety of illumination conditions in the sun. At ideal conditions of 9.96 pH, 40 ppm initial dye concentration, and 173 minutes of contact time, a maximum MB removal of 98.04% was attained. The first order kinetic model (R2=0.996) best described the MB removal kinetics in agreement with intraparticle diffusion-mediated adsorption.

Mohanty & Jena (2017) [127] evaluated the catalytic activity of the Dillenia indica bark mediated AgNPs in the reduction of 4-NP to 4-AP in the presence of NaBH₄ in water and the degradation of methylene blue dye. Anacardium occidentale testa-derived silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) were employed by Edison et al. (2016) [128] as a catalyst for the degradation of carcinogenic azo dyes like CR and MO using NaBH₄, and the catalytic activity of the materials was investigated using UV-Visible spectroscopy. AgNPs produced from A. occidentale exhibit outstanding catalytic activity when CR and MO are reductively degraded with the help of NaBH₄. The degradation rate constants for CR and MO have been computed and are 0.0795 and 0.1178 min−1, respectively. AgNPs produced by Kumar et al. (2016) [129] using an aqueous extract of Erigeron bonariensis demonstrated catalytic activity towards the degradation of Acridine Orange (AO) without the involvement of any hazardous reducing agents. It was discovered that the degradation of AO followed pseudo first-order kinetics when the concentration-dependent catalytic activity of the synthesized AgNPs was also observed using 1, 2, and 3 mL of silver colloids. The photocatalytic activity of silver nanoparticles was investigated by Vanaja et al. (2014) [130]. They synthesized the nanoparticles using Morinda tinctoria leaf extract and observed that they were nearly 95% effective at degrading methylene blue after 72 hours of exposure to sunlight. The catalytic activity of silver nanoparticles was investigated by Venkatesham et al. (2014) [131] through the reduction of 4-NP to 4-AP using sodium borohydride. Very strong catalytic activity was shown by the stabilized silver nanoparticles in gum karaya, and the reaction’s kinetics were discovered to be pseudo first order in relation to the 4-nitrophenol.

Challenges and future prospectives

The green synthesis of silver nanoparticles from plant extracts and their ability to degrade dyes and act as a colorimetric sensor for the detection of metal ions in aqueous solutions is discussed above. The use of silver nanoparticles for both the applications are advantageous over the traditional methods and are also eco-friendly and can be used in waste water treatment process. Even though the use of AgNPs is promising, there are a few concerns to be addressed to improve the applicability of these nanomaterials in waste water treatment. In addition to the nanoparticle’s effective potential, it is crucial to investigate the nanoparticle’s stability, recyclability, and appropriate integration with conventional technologies for long-term sustainability under real-world conditions. The long-term stability and performance of silver nanoparticles have to be studied extensively and for the sake of the economy, nanomaterial synthesis and operational expenses should be minimized, and their manufacturing should adhere to green chemistry standards for commercial usage. It is also important to evaluate the effects and toxicities of nanomaterials on the environment and human health as their application in wastewater treatment increases. While some studies have examined the toxicity and biological behaviour of nanoparticles on human health, more research is necessary to determine whether nanomaterials are environmentally compatible because current standards for nanomaterial toxicity are insufficient. The negative impacts of nanomaterials on the environment and humans, regulations governing their use are desperately needed. To protect public health and the environment, there is no law governing the maximum permissible concentrations of nanoparticles that can be present in wastewater. Therefore, it is essential to assess the toxicity of silver nanoparticles and the dangers associated with their utilization in the treatment of waste water.

Conclusion

Data availability: Data is provided within the manuscript

Code availability: Not applicable

Ethics and Consent to Publish declarations: not applicable

Funding: No funding was received for conducting this study

Competing interests: The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.

Conflict of interest:

The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare. All authors have seen and agree with the contents of the manuscript.

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Plant-based silver nanoparticles for colorimetric detection of metal ions and catalytic degradation of dyes: a review

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