Critical minerals, such as rare earth elements (REEs), lithium, and cobalt, are essential for modern technologies, including renewable energy, electronics, and advanced manufacturing. The increasing demand for these minerals has led to a surge in exploration and extraction efforts. However, their mineralogy and geochemistry are not well understood, hindering sustainable extraction and supply chain management. This review examines the current state of knowledge on the mineralogy and geochemistry of critical minerals, highlighting exploration, extraction, and sustainability challenges. Research has identified new mineral deposits and improved understanding of critical mineral geochemistry. Ion adsorption clay deposits and pegmatites are significant sources of REEs, while lithium is often extracted from brines and hard rock deposits. Cobalt is commonly associated with copper and nickel deposits. Advanced analytical techniques, such as machine learning and spectroscopy, are enhancing exploration and extraction efficiency. However, environmental concerns, such as water pollution and land degradation, accompany extraction activities. Sustainable practices, like recycling and urban mining, are being explored to mitigate these impacts. The mineralogy and geochemistry of critical minerals are complex and not yet fully understood. While advances in exploration and extraction technologies are improving supply chain resilience, sustainability remains a pressing concern. Future research should focus on developing eco-friendly extraction methods, improving recycling rates, and promoting responsible sourcing practices to ensure the long-term availability of these critical minerals.
